# 7.4: Partial and Total Ordering


Two special relations occur frequently in mathematics. Both have to do with some sort of ordering of the elements in a set. A branch of mathematics is devoted to their study. As you can tell from the brief discussion in this section, they cover many familiar concepts.

A relation on a nonempty set $$A$$ is called a partial ordering or a partial-order relation if it is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. We often use $$\preceq$$ to denote a partial ordering, and called $$(A,\preceq)$$ a partially ordered set or a poset.

Example $$\PageIndex{1}\label{eg:ordering-01}$$

The usual “less than or equal to” relation on $$R$$, denoted $$\leq$$, is a perfect example of partial ordering. In fact, this is the reason why we adopt the notation $$\preceq$$, as it reflects the similarities between the two symbols.

Example $$\PageIndex{2}\label{eg:ordering-02}$$

Another classic example of partial ordering is the subset relation, denoted $$\subseteq$$, on $$\wp(S)$$, where $$S$$ is any set of elements. Observe that $$S$$ can be empty, in which case $$\wp(\emptyset) = \{\emptyset\}$$, and $$(\wp(\emptyset),\subseteq)$$ is obviously a partially ordered set.

Example $$\PageIndex{3}\label{eg:ordering-03}$$

Another standard example of poset is $$(\mathbb{N},\mid)$$. It is easy to verify that the “divides” relation over the natural numbers is a partial ordering. Can you explain why $$(\mathbb{Z}^*,\mid)$$ is not a poset?

Exercise $$\PageIndex{1}\label{he:ordering-01}$$

Find a counterexample to illustrate why the “divides” relation, denoted $$\mid$$ , over $$\mathbb{Z}^*$$ is not antisymmetric. Is the “divides” relation reflexive over $$\mathbb{Z}$$? How about transitivity?

Exercise $$\PageIndex{2}\label{he:ordering-02}$$

Define the relation $$\sqsubseteq$$ on $$\wp(\{a,b,c,d\})$$ according to $S\sqsubseteq T \,\Leftrightarrow\, S\subseteq T\cup\{a\}. \nonumber$ Is $$(\wp(\{a,b,c,d\},\sqsubseteq)$$ a poset? Which properties it does not possess? Explain.

Obviously, if $$a\preceq b$$ but $$a\neq b$$, then we can write $$a \prec b$$. We sometimes say $$a$$ precedes $$b$$, or $$b$$ succeeds $$a$$. We also say $$a$$ is the predecessor of $$b$$, or $$b$$ is the successor of $$a$$.

The digraph for a poset can be simplified. Since $$a$$ is always related to $$a$$ itself, it is redundant to draw a loop around every vertex. Since $$a\preceq b$$ and $$b\preceq c$$ always imply that $$a\preceq c$$, there is no need to include the arc (directed edge) from $$a$$ to $$c$$. So we follow the convention that we only draw an arc from $$a$$ to $$b$$ if $$a\prec b$$ and there does not exist another element $$t$$ such that $$a\prec t$$ and $$t\prec b$$. Lastly, if $$a\prec b$$, we can place $$b$$ above $$a$$ so that all the arcs are pointing upward. This suggests that we can use undirected lines to make the graph easier to read. All these modifications lead to a much simpler graphical representation called a Hasse diagram.

Example $$\PageIndex{4}\label{eg:ordering-04}$$

It is clear that $$(\{1,2,3,4,6,12\},\mid)$$ is a poset. Its Hasse diagram is displayed below.

In this convention of using undirected line, the $$\preceq$$ relation (hence, the ordering of the elements) is read from the bottom up.

Exercise $$\PageIndex{3}\label{he:ordering-03}$$

Draw the Hasse diagram for the poset $$(\{1,2,3,4,6,9,12,18,36\},\mid)$$.

The definition of a poset does not require every pair of distinct elements to be comparable. This means there may exist $$a\neq b$$ such that $$a\not\preceq b$$ and $$b\not\preceq a$$. An example can be found in the numbers 2 and 3 in Example 7.4.4. If a partial ordering has the additional property that for any two distinct elements $$a$$ and $$b$$, either $$a\prec b$$ or $$b\prec a$$ (hence, any pair of distinct elements are comparable), we call the relation a total ordering.

Example $$\PageIndex{5}\label{eg:ordering-05}$$

The poset $$(\mathbb{N},\leq)$$ is a totally ordered set. The poset $$(\{1,5,25,125\},\mid)$$ is also a totally ordered set. Its Hasse diagram is shown below.

It is clear that the Hasse diagram of any totally ordered set will look like the one displayed above. Consequently, a total ordering is also called a linear ordering. A totally ordered set is also called a chain.

Exercise $$\PageIndex{4}\label{he:ordering-04}$$

Construct the Hasse diagram for the poset $$(\{1,2,4,18,16\},\mid)$$. Is it a totally ordered set?

Exercise $$\PageIndex{5}\label{he:ordering-05}$$

Construct the Hasse diagram for the poset $$(\wp(\{a,b,c\}),\subseteq)$$.

## Summary and Review

• A relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive is called a partial ordering.
• A set with a partial ordering is called a partially ordered set or a poset.
• A poset with every pair of distinct elements comparable is called a totally ordered set.
• A total ordering is also called a linear ordering, and a totally ordered set is also called a chain.

Exercise $$\PageIndex{1}\label{ex:ordering-01}$$

Let $$A$$ be the set of natural numbers that are divisors of 30. Construct the Hasse diagram of $$(A,\mid)$$.

Exercise $$\PageIndex{2}\label{ex:ordering-02}$$

Let $$S = \big\{\{a\},\{b\},\{c\},\{a,b\},\{a,c\},\{b,c\}\big\}$$. Construct the Hasse diagram for $$(S,\subseteq)$$.

Exercise $$\PageIndex{3}\label{ex:ordering-03}$$

Let $$(A,\preceq)$$ be a poset, and $$B$$ a nonempty subset of $$A$$. Show that $$(B,\preceq)$$ is also a poset. Naturally, we call $$(B,\preceq)$$ a subposet of $$(A,\preceq)$$.

Exercise $$\PageIndex{4}\label{ex:ordering-04}$$

Define the relation $$\preceq$$ on $$\mathbb{Z}$$ according to $a\preceq b \,\Leftrightarrow\, a=b \mbox{ or } a\bmod3 < b\bmod3. \nonumber$

• Show that $$(\mathbb{Z},\preceq)$$ is a poset.
• Let $$B=\{-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,-3\}$$. Construct the Hasse diagram for the subposet $$(B,\preceq)$$.

Exercise $$\PageIndex{5}\label{ex:ordering-05}$$

Define the relation $$\preceq$$ on $$\mathbb{Z}$$ according to $a\preceq b \,\Leftrightarrow\, a=b \mbox{ or } |a|<|b|. \nonumber$

• Show that $$(\mathbb{Z},\preceq)$$ is a poset.
• Construct the Hasse diagram for the subposet $$(B,\preceq)$$, where $$B=\{-2,-1,0,1,2\}$$.

Exercise $$\PageIndex{6}\label{ex:ordering-06}$$

Define the relation $$\preceq$$ on $$\mathbb{Z}\times\mathbb{Z}$$ according to $(a,b)\preceq(c,d) \,\Leftrightarrow\, (a,b)=(c,d) \mbox{ or } a^2+b^2<c^2+d^2. \nonumber$

• Show that $$(\mathbb{Z}\times\mathbb{Z},\preceq)$$ is a poset.
• Construct the Hasse diagram for the subposet $$(B,\preceq)$$, where $$B=\{0,1,2\}\times\{0,1,2\}$$.

Exercise $$\PageIndex{7}\label{ex:ordering-07}$$

Construct an example of a subset $$B$$ of $$\wp(\{a,b,c,d\})$$ such that $$(B,\subseteq)$$ is a totally ordered set.

Exercise $$\PageIndex{8}\label{ex:ordering-08}$$

Let $A = \{(m,n)\mid m,n\in\mathbb{N} \mbox{ and } \gcd(m,n)=1\}, \nonumber$ and define the relation $$\preceq$$ on $$A$$ according to $(a,b)\preceq(c,d) \,\Leftrightarrow\, ad\leq bc. \nonumber$ Prove that $$(A,\preceq)$$ is a totally ordered set.

This page titled 7.4: Partial and Total Ordering is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Harris Kwong (OpenSUNY) .