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2.8: Gallery of Functions

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In this section we’ll look at many of the functions you know and love as functions of z. For each one we’ll have to do four things.

  1. Define how to compute it.
  2. Specify a branch (if necessary) giving its range.
  3. Specify a domain (with branch cut if necessary) where it is analytic.
  4. Compute its derivative.

Most often, we can compute the derivatives of a function using the algebraic rules like the quotient rule. If necessary we can use the Cauchy-Riemann equations or, as a last resort, even the definition of the derivative as a limit.

Before we start on the gallery we define the term “entire function”.

Definition

A function that is analytic at every point in the complex plane is called an entire function. We will see that ez, zn, sin(z) are all entire functions.

Gallery of functions, derivatives and properties

The following is a concise list of a number of functions and their complex derivatives. None of the derivatives will surprise you. We also give important properties for some of the functions. The proofs for each follow below.

  1. f(z)=ez=excos(y)+iexsin(y).
    Domain = all of C (f is entire).
    f(z)=ez.
  2. f(z)c (constant)
    Domain = all of C (f is entire).
    f(z)=0.
  3. f(z)=zn (n an integer 0)
    Domain = all of C (f is entire).
    f(z)=nzn1.
  4. P(z) (polynomial)
    A polynomial has the form P(z)=anzn+an1zn1+...+a0.
    Domian = all of C (P(z) is entire).
    P(z)=nanzn1+(n1)an1zn1+...+2a2z+a1.
  5. f(z)=1/z
    Domain = C - {0} (the punctured plane).
    f(z)=1/z2.
  6. f(z)=P(z)/Q(z) (rational function)
    When P and Q are polynomials P(z)/Q(z) is called a rational function.
    If we assume that P and Q have no common roots, then:
    Domain = C - {roots of Q}
    f(z)=PQPQQ2.
  7. sin(z),cos(z)
    Definition

    cos(z)=eiz+eiz2, sin(z)=eizeiz2i

    (By Euler’s formula we know this is consistent with cos(x) and sin(x) when z=x is real.)

    Domian: these functions are entire.
    dcos(z)dz=sin(z), dsin(z)dz=cos(z).
    Other key properties of sin and cos:

    - cos2(z)+sin2(z)=1
    - ez=cos(z)+isin(z)
    - Periodic in x with period 2π, e.g. sin(x+2π+iy)=sin(x+iy).
    - They are not bounded!
    - In the form f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y) we have
    cos(z)=cos(x)cosh(y)isin(x)sinh(y)sin(z)=sin(x)cosh(y)+icos(x)sinh(y)
    (cosh and sinh are defined below.)
    - The zeros of sin(z) are z=nπ for n any integer.
    The zeros of cos(z) are z=π/2+nπ for n any integer.
    (That is, they have only real zeros that you learned about in your trig. class.)
  8. Other trig functions cot(z), sec(z) etc.
    Definition

    The same as for the real versions of these function, e.g. cot(z)=cos(z)/sin(z), sec(z)=1/cos(z).

    Domain: The entire plane minus the zeros of the denominator.
    Derivative: Compute using the quotient rule, e.g.
    dtan(z)dz=ddz(sin(z)cos(z))=cos(z)cos(z)sin(z)(sin(z))cos2(z)=1cos2(z)=sec2z
    (No surprises there!)
  9. sinh(z),cosh(z) (hyperbolic sine and cosine)
    Definition

    cosh(z)=ez+ez2,  sinh(z)=ezez2

    Domain: these functions are entire.
    dcosh(z)dz=sinh(z), dsinh(z)dz=cosh(z)
    Other key properties of cosh and sinh:
    - cosh2(z)sinh2(z)=1
    - For real x, cosh(x) is real and positive, sinh(x) is real.
    - cosh(iz)=cos(z), sinh(z)=isin(iz).
  10. log(z) (See Topic 1.)
    Definition

    log(z)=log(|z|)+iarg(z).

    Branch: Any branch of arg(z).
    Domain: C minus a branch cut where the chosen branch of arg(z) is discontinuous.
    ddzlog(z)=1z
  11. za (any complex a) (See Topic 1.)
    Definition

    za=ealog(z).

    Branch: Any branch of arg(z).
    Domain: Generally the domain is C minus a branch cut of log. If a is an integer 0 then za is entire. If a is a negative integer then za is defined and analytic on C - {0}.
    dzadz=aza1.
  12. sin1(z)
    Definition

    sin1(z)=ilog(iz+1z2).

    The definition is chosen so that sin(sin1(z))=z. The derivation of the formula is as follows.
    Let w=sin1(z), so z=sin(w). Then,
    z=eiweiw2i  e2iw2izeiw1=0
    Solving the quadratic in eiw gives
    eiw=2iz+4z2+42=iz+1z2.
    Taking the log gives
    iw=log(iz+1z2)  w=ilog(iz+1z2.
    From the definition we can compute the derivative:
    ddzsin1(z)=11z2.
    Choosing a branch is tricky because both the square root and the log require choices. We will look at this more carefully in the future.

    For now, the following discussion and figure are for your amusement.

    Sine (likewise cosine) is not a 1-1 function, so if we want sin1(z) to be single-valued then we have to choose a region where sin(z) is 1-1. (This will be a branch of sin1(z), i.e. a range for the image,) The figure below shows a domain where sin(z) is 1-1. The domain consists of the vertical strip z=x+iy with π/2<x<π/2 together with the two rays on boundary where y0 (shown as red lines). The figure indicates how the regions making up the domain in the z-plane are mapped to the quadrants in the w-plane.
001.svg
Figure 2.8.1: A domain where zw=sin(z) is one-to-one. (CC BY-NC; Ümit Kaya)

proofs

Here we prove at least some of the facts stated in the list just above.

  1. f(z)=ez. This was done in Example 2.7.1 using the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
  2. f(z)c (constant). This case is trivial.
  3. f(z)=zn (n an integer 0): show f(z)=nzn1
    It’s probably easiest to use the definition of derivative directly. Before doing that we note the factorization
    znzn0=(zz0)(zn1+zn2z0+zn3z20+...+z2zn30+zzn20+zn10)
    Now
    f(z0)=limzz0f(z)f(z0)zz0=limzz0znzn0zz0=limzz0(zn1+zn2z0+zn3z20+...+z2zn30+zzn20+zn10=nzn10.
    Since we showed directly that the derivative exists for all z, the function must be entire.
  4. P(z) (polynomial). Since a polynomial is a sum of monomials, the formula for the derivative follows from the derivative rule for sums and the case f(z)=zn. Likewise the fact the P(z) is entire.
  5. f(z)=1/z. This follows from the quotient rule.
  6. f(z)=P(z)/Q(z). This also follows from the quotient rule.
  7. sin(z), cos(z). All the facts about sin(z) and cos(z) follow from their definition in terms of exponentials.
  8. Other trig functions cot(z), sec(z) etc. Since these are all defined in terms of cos and sin, all the facts about these functions follow from the derivative rules.
  9. sinh(z), cosh(z). All the facts about sinh(z) and cosh(z) follow from their definition in terms of exponentials.
  10. log(z). The derivative of log(z) can be found by differentiating the relation elog(z)=z using the chain rule. Let w=log(z), so ew=z and
    ddzew=dzdz=1  dewdwdwdz=1  ewdwdz=1  dwdz=1ew
    Using w=log(z) we get
    dlog(z)dz=1z.
  11. za (any complex a). The derivative for this follows from the formula
    za=ealog(z)  dzadz=ealog(z)az=azaz=aza1

This page titled 2.8: Gallery of Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jeremy Orloff (MIT OpenCourseWare) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform.

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