
9.5: The Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization procedure

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We now come to a fundamentally important algorithm, which is called the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure. This algorithm makes it possible to construct, for each list of linearly independent vectors (resp. basis), a corresponding orthonormal list (resp. orthonormal basis).

Theorem 9.5.1

If $$(v_1,\ldots,v_m)$$ is a list of linearly independent vectors in $$V$$, then there exists an orthonormal list $$(e_1,\ldots,e_m)$$ such that

$\Span(v_1,\ldots,v_k) = \Span(e_1,\ldots,e_k), \quad \text{for all $$k=1,\ldots,m$$.} \label{9.5.1}$

Proof

The proof is constructive, that is, we will actually construct vectors $$e_1,\ldots,e_m$$ having the desired properties. Since $$(v_1,\ldots,v_m)$$ is linearly independent, $$v_k\neq 0$$ for each $$k=1,2,\ldots,m$$. Set $$e_1=\frac{v_1}{\norm{v_1}}$$. Then $$e_{1}$$ is a vector of norm 1 and satisfies Equation (9.5.1) for $$k=1$$. Next, set

$\begin{equation*} e_2 = \frac{v_2 - \inner{v_2}{e_1} e_1}{\norm{v_2 - \inner{v_2}{e_1} e_1}}. \end{equation*}$

This is, in fact, the normalized version of the orthogonal decomposition Equation(9.3.1)~\eqref{eq:orthogonal decomp}. I.e.,

$\begin{equation*} w = v_2 - \inner{v_2}{e_1}e_1, \end{equation*}$

where $$w\bot e_1$$. Note that $$\norm{e_2}=1$$ and $$\Span(e_1,e_2)=\Span(v_1,v_2)$$.

Now, suppose that $$e_1,\ldots,e_{k-1}$$ have been constructed such that $$(e_1,\ldots,e_{k-1})$$ is an orthonormal list and $$\Span(v_1,\ldots,v_{k-1}) = \Span(e_1,\ldots,e_{k-1})$$. Then define
$\begin{equation*} e_k = \frac{v_k - \inner{v_k}{e_1}e_1 - \inner{v_k}{e_2} e_2 - \cdots -\inner{v_k}{e_{k-1}} e_{k-1}} {\norm{v_k - \inner{v_k}{e_1}e_1 - \inner{v_k}{e_2} e_2 - \cdots -\inner{v_k}{e_{k-1}} e_{k-1}}}. \end{equation*}$

Since $$(v_1,\ldots,v_k)$$ is linearly independent, we know that $$v_k\not\in \Span(v_1,\ldots,v_{k-1})$$. Hence, we also know that $$v_k\not\in \Span(e_1,\ldots,e_{k-1})$$. It follows that the norm in the definition of $$e_k$$ is not zero, and so $$e_k$$ is well-defined (i.e., we are not dividing by zero). Note that a vector divided by its norm has norm 1 so that $$\norm{e_k}=1$$. Furthermore,

$\begin{equation*} \begin{split} \inner{e_k}{e_i} &= \left\langle \frac{v_k - \inner{v_k}{e_1}e_1 - \inner{v_k}{e_2} e_2 - \cdots -\inner{v_k}{e_{k-1}} e_{k-1}} {\norm{v_k - \inner{v_k}{e_1}e_1 - \inner{v_k}{e_2} e_2 - \cdots -\inner{v_k}{e_{k-1}} e_{k-1}}}, e_i \right\rangle \\ &= \frac{\inner{v_k}{e_i} - \inner{v_k}{e_i}} {\norm{v_k - \inner{v_k}{e_1}e_1 - \inner{v_k}{e_2} e_2 - \cdots -\inner{v_k}{e_{k-1}} e_{k-1}}}=0, \end{split} \end{equation*}$

for each $$1\le i<k$$. Hence, $$(e_1,\ldots,e_k)$$ is orthonormal.

$$\square$$

From the definition of $$e_k$$, we see that $$v_k\in \Span(e_1,\ldots,e_k)$$ so that $$\Span(v_1,\ldots,v_k) \subset \Span(e_1,\ldots,e_k)$$. Since both lists $$(e_1,\ldots,e_k)$$ and $$(v_1,\ldots,v_k)$$ are linearly independent, they must span subspaces of the same dimension and therefore are the same subspace. Hence Equation (9.5.1) holds.

Example $$\PageIndex{2}$$

Take $$v_1=(1,1,0)$$ and $$v_2=(2,1,1)$$ in $$\mathbb{R}^3$$. The list $$(v_1,v_2)$$ is linearly independent (as you should verify!). To illustrate the Gram-Schmidt procedure, we begin by setting
$\begin{equation*} e_1 = \frac{v_1}{\norm{v_1}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} (1,1,0). \end{equation*}$
Next, set
$\begin{equation*} e_2 = \frac{v_2 - \inner{v_2}{e_1}e_1}{\norm{v_2 - \inner{v_2}{e_1}e_1}}. \end{equation*}$
The inner product $$\inner{v_2}{e_1}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\inner{(1,1,0)}{(2,1,1)}=\frac{3}{\sqrt{2}}$$,
so
$\begin{equation*} u_2 = v_2 - \inner{v_2}{e_1}e_1 = (2,1,1) - \frac{3}{2}(1,1,0) = \frac{1}{2}(1,-1,2). \end{equation*}$
Calculating the norm of $$u_2$$, we obtain $$\norm{u_2}=\sqrt{\frac{1}{4}(1+1+4)} = \frac{\sqrt{6}}{2}$$.
Hence, normalizing this vector, we obtain
$\begin{equation*} e_2 = \frac{u_2}{\norm{u_2}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}(1,-1,2). \end{equation*}$
The list $$(e_1,e_2)$$ is therefore orthonormal and has the same span as $$(v_1,v_2)$$.

Corollary 9.5.3.

Every finite-dimensional inner product space has an orthonormal basis.

Proof

Let $$(v_1,\ldots,v_n)$$ be any basis for $$V$$. This list is linearly independent and spans $$V$$. Apply the Gram-Schmidt procedure to this list to obtain an orthonormal list $$(e_1,\ldots,e_n)$$, which still spans $$V$$ by construction. By Proposition9.4.2~\ref{prop:orth li}, this list is linearly independent and hence a basis of $$V$$.

Corollary 9.5.4.

Every orthonormal list of vectors in $$V$$ can be extended to an orthonormal basis of $$V$$.

Proof

Let $$(e_1,\ldots,e_m)$$ be an orthonormal list of vectors in $$V$$. By Proposition9.4.2~\ref{prop:orth li}, this list is linearly independent and hence can be extended to a basis $$(e_1,\ldots,e_m,v_1,\ldots,v_k)$$ of $$V$$ by the Basis Extension Theorem. Now apply the Gram-Schmidt procedure to obtain a new orthonormal basis $$(e_1,\ldots,e_m,f_1,\ldots,f_k)$$. The first $$m$$ vectors do not change since they already are orthonormal. The list still spans $$V$$ and is linearly independent by Proposition9.4.2~\ref{prop:orth li} and therefore forms a basis.

Recall Theorem7.5.3~\ref{thm:ComplexLinearMapsUpperTriangularWrtSomeBasis}: given an operator $$T \in \mathcal{L}(V, V)$$ on a complex vector space $$V$$, there exists a basis $$B$$ for $$V$$ such that the matrix $$M(T)$$ of $$T$$ with respect to $$B$$ is upper triangular. We would like to extend this result to require the additional property of orthonormality.

Corollary 9.5.5

Let $$V$$ be an inner product space over $$\mathbb{F}$$ and $$T\in\mathcal{L}(V,V)$$. If $$T$$ is upper-triangular with respect to some basis, then $$T$$ is upper-triangular with respect to some orthonormal basis.

Proof

Let $$(v_1,\ldots,v_n)$$ be a basis of $$V$$ with respect to which $$T$$ is upper-triangular. Apply the Gram-Schmidt procedure to obtain an orthonormal basis $$(e_1,\ldots,e_n)$$, and note that

$\Span(e_1,\ldots,e_k) = \Span(v_1,\ldots,v_k), \quad \text{for all $$1\le k\le n$$.}$

We proved before that $$T$$ is upper-triangular with respect to a basis $$(v_1,\ldots,v_n)$$ if and only if $$\Span(v_1,\ldots,v_k)$$ is invariant under $$T$$ for each $$1\le k\le n$$. Since these spans are unchanged by the Gram-Schmidt procedure, $$T$$ is still upper triangular for the corresponding orthonormal basis.

Contributors

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